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C if...else Statement

In this tutorial, you will learn about the if statement (including if...else and nested if..else) in C programming with the help of examples.

Video: C if else Statement

C if Statement

The syntax of the if statement in C programming is:

How if statement works?

The if statement evaluates the test expression inside the parenthesis () .

How if statement works in C programming?

To learn more about when test expression is evaluated to true (non-zero value) and false (0), check relational and logical operators .

Example 1: if statement

When the user enters -2, the test expression number<0 is evaluated to true. Hence, You entered -2 is displayed on the screen.

When the user enters 5, the test expression number<0 is evaluated to false and the statement inside the body of if is not executed

The if statement may have an optional else block. The syntax of the if..else statement is:

How if...else statement works?

If the test expression is evaluated to true,

If the test expression is evaluated to false,

How if...else statement works in C programming?

Example 2: if...else statement

When the user enters 7, the test expression number%2==0 is evaluated to false. Hence, the statement inside the body of else is executed.

C if...else Ladder

The if...else statement executes two different codes depending upon whether the test expression is true or false. Sometimes, a choice has to be made from more than 2 possibilities.

The if...else ladder allows you to check between multiple test expressions and execute different statements.

Syntax of if...else Ladder

Example 3: c if...else ladder.

It is possible to include an if...else statement inside the body of another if...else statement.

Example 4: Nested if...else

This program given below relates two integers using either < , > and = similar to the if...else ladder's example. However, we will use a nested if...else statement to solve this problem.

If the body of an if...else statement has only one statement, you do not need to use brackets {} .

For example, this code

is equivalent to

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How to write a C program: Step by step guideline

In this article, you will learn about how to write a C program with our step by step guidelines. Till now we have learned various concepts of C programming and are ready to write programs of modest complexity or develop projects.

This is our comprehensive step by step guidelines about how to write a C program.

How to write a C program?

Martin Fowler once said:

“  Any fool can write code that a computer can understand. Good programmers write code that humans can understand.  ”

A programmer can write complex codes to solve the task but only a brilliant programmer write programs that can be interpreted by others and can be maintained if any errors come down the line.

Therefore, before writing complex programs, it is a good idea to follow some programming techniques because well-written programs possess several traits.

So, how should I begin to write code and what steps should I follow then?

Don’t worry!

In this article, We will guide you through important stages of program development that will possess above characteristics.

The major steps are:

Program Design

Program coding, program testing and debugging.

Program design is the foundation that is at the heart of program development cycle.

Before getting your hands on the source code, it is crucial to understand the program from all sides and develop program development strategy.

You can break down program design into four steps:

Problem Analysis

Generating the program structure or blue print, algorithm development of the program, proper selection of control statements.

The first step is to get the clear idea of the problem and what you want the program to do. So ask yourself the following questions:

Once you have got the answers to the above questions, you should decide how to accomplish the task.

How should the program be organized?

Since C is a structured language it follows the top-down approach that means break the whole problem into smaller tasks. Now it is easier to code smaller subtasks.

This will produce a readable and modular code which is very important for others to understand your code.

This is the important step of the program design. Once you have got the overall idea and broke the problem into smaller subtasks, it’s time to scratch details and step by step procedure, that is known as Algorithm in programming.

This is also known as pseudocode.

After the development of the algorithm, you should draw flowchart, pictorial representation of the algorithm.

I already mentioned this as an important step because there are several ways to solve the problem and it’s up to you which way you are going.

For example, for sorting an array you can use bubble sort , insertion sort or selection sort .

In a complex C program or project, you will have to use a huge number of control statements such as if ... else , while or for to direct the flow of execution.

Any algorithm or decision making can be accomplished using sequence structure, selection structure, and looping structure. Use proper control statements that will make your code easy and error-free.

Choosing a good way to represent the information can often make designing the program easy and simple.

Try avoiding the use of goto statements.

Once you have developed the full blue print of the program, it’s time to write source code according to the algorithm. That means be ready to translate your flowchart into a set of instruction.

It’s time to use your knowledge of C programming to work and try to write your code as simple as you can.

Following are the elements of program coding:

Proper documentation or commenting

Proper way for construction of statements, clear input/output formats, generality of the program.

The main goal of this step is to make code readable and understandable to others.

Selection of meaningful variable name and proper use of comments are an integral part of this step. Comments are necessary, but they must be good comments.

Let us see the example:

Although above program is syntactically correct, it can be written with proper variable names which is more meaningful.

While writing code, your statement should be simple and direct with proper indentation.

Observe following coding styles:

Although above program is syntactically correct, it can be written with proper indentation and commenting.

Both codes are syntactically right but consider proper way of statement construction.

The user should understand what to input and output of the program.

Always mention input requests clearly and label all outputs.

We should always try to minimize the dependence of the program on particular data.

For example:  While defining the size of an array use macro so that it’s easy for the programmer to change the size later in the program.

In this phase, you will review your source code for error checking.

Errors may be:

Compiler helps to detect syntax and semantic errors. It is a computer program that converts source code into executable code or machine language.

Please check out the typical development of C program for detail understanding.

The compiler is unable to detect run-time and logical errors, so there is need of human testing as well.

Debugging means correcting the programming errors. There are different methods of debugging a source code.

Program Efficiency

Program efficiency relates to the execution time of the program and memory consumption.

If you follow all of the above-mentioned techniques, your program will be efficient as well as effective.

Last but not least, following are some of the tips to improve program efficiency.

Guru99

Loops in C: For, While, Do While looping Statements [Examples]

Looping Statements in C execute the sequence of statements many times until the stated condition becomes false. A loop in C consists of two parts, a body of a loop and a control statement. The control statement is a combination of some conditions that direct the body of the loop to execute until the specified condition becomes false. The purpose of the C loop is to repeat the same code a number of times.

In this tutorial, you will learn-

Types of Loops in C

While loop in c, do-while loop in c, for loop in c, break statement in c, continue statement in c, which loop to select.

Depending upon the position of a control statement in a program, looping statement in C is classified into two types:

1. Entry controlled loop

2. Exit controlled loop

In an entry control loop in C, a condition is checked before executing the body of a loop. It is also called as a pre-checking loop.

Loops in C

The control conditions must be well defined and specified otherwise the loop will execute an infinite number of times. The loop that does not stop executing and processes the statements number of times is called as an infinite loop . An infinite loop is also called as an “ Endless loop .” Following are some characteristics of an infinite loop:

1. No termination condition is specified.

2. The specified conditions never meet.

The specified condition determines whether to execute the loop body or not.

‘C’ programming language provides us with three types of loop constructs:

1. The while loop

2. The do-while loop

3. The for loop

A while loop is the most straightforward looping structure. While loop syntax in C programming language is as follows:

Syntax of While Loop in C:

It is an entry-controlled loop. In while loop, a condition is evaluated before processing a body of the loop. If a condition is true then and only then the body of a loop is executed. After the body of a loop is executed then control again goes back at the beginning, and the condition is checked if it is true, the same process is executed until the condition becomes false. Once the condition becomes false, the control goes out of the loop.

After exiting the loop, the control goes to the statements which are immediately after the loop. The body of a loop can contain more than one statement. If it contains only one statement, then the curly braces are not compulsory. It is a good practice though to use the curly braces even we have a single statement in the body.

In while loop, if the condition is not true, then the body of a loop will not be executed, not even once. It is different in do while loop which we will see shortly.

Following program illustrates while loop in C programming example:

The above program illustrates the use of while loop. In the above program, we have printed series of numbers from 1 to 10 using a while loop.

Example of While Loop in C Programming

While Loop in C Programming

A do…while loop in C is similar to the while loop except that the condition is always executed after the body of a loop. It is also called an exit-controlled loop.

Syntax of do while loop in C programming language is as follows:

Syntax of Do-While Loop in C:

As we saw in a while loop, the body is executed if and only if the condition is true. In some cases, we have to execute a body of the loop at least once even if the condition is false. This type of operation can be achieved by using a do-while loop.

In the do-while loop, the body of a loop is always executed at least once. After the body is executed, then it checks the condition. If the condition is true, then it will again execute the body of a loop otherwise control is transferred out of the loop.

Similar to the while loop, once the control goes out of the loop the statements which are immediately after the loop is executed.

The critical difference between the while and do-while loop is that in while loop the while is written at the beginning. In do-while loop, the while condition is written at the end and terminates with a semi-colon (;)

The following loop program in C illustrates the working of a do-while loop:

Below is a do-while loop in C example to print a table of number 2:

In the above example, we have printed multiplication table of 2 using a do-while loop. Let’s see how the program was able to print the series.

Example of Do While Loop in C Programming

Do-While Loop in C Programming

A for loop is a more efficient loop structure in ‘C’ programming. The general structure of for loop syntax in C is as follows:

Syntax of For Loop in C:

Following program illustrates the for loop in C programming example:

The above program prints the number series from 1-10 using for loop.

Example of For Loop in C Programming

For Loop in C Programming

In C, the for loop can have multiple expressions separated by commas in each part.

For example:

Also, we can skip the initial value expression, condition and/or increment by adding a semicolon.

Notice that loops can also be nested where there is an outer loop and an inner loop. For each iteration of the outer loop, the inner loop repeats its entire cycle.

Consider the following example with multiple conditions in for loop, that uses nested for loop in C programming to output a multiplication table:

The nesting of for loops can be done up-to any level. The nested loops should be adequately indented to make code readable. In some versions of ‘C,’ the nesting is limited up to 15 loops, but some provide more.

The nested loops are mostly used in array applications which we will see in further tutorials.

The break statement is used mainly in the switch statement. It is also useful for immediately stopping a loop.

We consider the following program which introduces a break to exit a while loop:

When you want to skip to the next iteration but remain in the loop, you should use the continue statement.

So, the value 5 is skipped.

Selection of a loop is always a tough task for a programmer, to select a loop do the following steps:

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Statement with ? in C [duplicate]

Possible Duplicate: How do I use the conditional operator?

I’m new to C language, and in one of the sample codes I was reviewing I faced the statement:

I was just wondering what the task of the previous statement is and what will be the result after execution of the mentioned statement.

Community's user avatar

6 Answers 6

It's called a ternary operator . expr ? a : b returns a if expr is true, b if false. expr can be a boolean expression (e.g. x > 3 ), a boolean literal/variable or anything castable to a boolean (e.g. an int).

int ret = expr ? a : b is equivalent to the following:

The nice thing about the ternary operator is that it's an expression, whereas the above are statements, and you can nest expressions but not statements. So you can do things like ret = (expr ? a : b) > 0;

As an extra tidbit, Python >=2.6 has a slightly different syntax for an equivalent operation: a if expr else b .

moinudin's user avatar

It assigns to A the value of B if A is true, otherwise C[0] .

Ignacio Vazquez-Abrams's user avatar

result = a > b ? x : y; is identical to this block:

robert's user avatar

It's the same as an if else statement.

It could be rewritten as:

Nick's user avatar

A gets assigned to B if A exists (not NULL), otherwise C[0].

Neil's user avatar

if A equal 0 then A = C[0] else A = B

Sergey K's user avatar

Not the answer you're looking for? Browse other questions tagged c syntax ternary-operator or ask your own question .

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C++ Tutorial

C++ functions, c++ classes, c++ examples, c++ if ... else, c++ conditions and if statements.

You already know that C++ supports the usual logical conditions from mathematics:

You can use these conditions to perform different actions for different decisions.

C++ has the following conditional statements:

The if Statement

Use the if statement to specify a block of C++ code to be executed if a condition is true .

Note that if is in lowercase letters. Uppercase letters (If or IF) will generate an error.

In the example below, we test two values to find out if 20 is greater than 18. If the condition is true , print some text:

We can also test variables:

Example explained

In the example above we use two variables, x and y , to test whether x is greater than y (using the > operator). As x is 20, and y is 18, and we know that 20 is greater than 18, we print to the screen that "x is greater than y".

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Home » C programming language

Logical OR (||) operator with example in C language

C language Logical OR (||) operator : Here, we are going to learn about the Logical OR (||) operator in C language with its syntax, example . Submitted by IncludeHelp , on April 14, 2019

Logical operators work with the test conditions and return the result based on the condition's results, these can also be used to validate multiple conditions together.

In C programming language, there are three logical operators Logical AND (&&) , Logical OR (||) and Logician NOT (!) .

Logical OR (||) operator in C

Logical OR is denoted by double pipe characters ( || ), it is used to check the combinations of more than one conditions; it is a binary operator – which requires two operands.

If any of the operand's values is non-zero (true), Logical OR (||) operator returns 1 ("true"), it returns 0 ("false") if all operand's values are 0 (false).

Syntax of Logical OR operator:

Truth table of logical OR operator:

C examples of Logical OR (||) operator

Example 1: Take a number and apply some of the conditions and print the result of expression containing logical OR operator.

Example 2: Input gender in single character and print full gender (Ex: if input is 'M' or 'm' – it should print "Male").

Example 3: Input an integer number and check whether it is divisible by 9 or 7.

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1. Simple statements

2. compound statements, 2.1. conditionals, 2.2.1. the while loop, 2.2.2. the do..while loop, 2.2.3. the for loop, 2.2.4. loops with break, continue, and goto, 2.3. choosing where to put a loop exit.

C Programming/Statements

A statement is a command given to the computer that instructs the computer to take a specific action, such as display to the screen, or collect input. A computer program is made up of a series of statements.

In C, a statement can be any of the following:

Labeled Statements [ edit | edit source ]

A statement can be preceded by a label. Three types of labels exist in C.

A simple identifier followed by a colon ( : ) is a label. Usually, this label is the target of a goto statement.

Within switch statements, case and default labeled statements exist.

A statement of the form

case constant-expression : statement

indicates that control will pass to this statement if the value of the control expression of the switch statement matches the value of the constant-expression . (In this case, the type of the constant-expression must be an integer or character.)

default : statement

indicates that control will pass to this statement if the control expression of the switch statement does not match any of the constant-expressions within the switch statement. If the default statement is omitted, the control will pass to the statement following the switch statement. Within a switch statement, there can be only one default statement, unless the switch statement is within another switch statement.

Compound Statements [ edit | edit source ]

A compound statement is the way C groups multiple statements into a single statement. It consists of multiple statements and declarations within braces (i.e. { and } ). In the ANSI C Standard of 1989-1990, a compound statement contained an optional list of declarations followed by an optional list of statements; in more recent revisions of the Standard, declarations and statements can be freely interwoven through the code. The body of a function is also a compound statement by rule.

Expression Statements [ edit | edit source ]

An expression statement consists of an optional expression followed by a semicolon ( ; ). If the expression is present, the statement may have a value. If no expression is present, the statement is often called the null statement .

The printf function calls are expressions, so statements such as printf ("Hello World!\n"); are expression statements.

Selection Statements [ edit | edit source ]

Three types of selection statements exist in C:

if ( expression ) statement

In this type of if-statement, the sub-statement will only be executed iff the expression is non-zero.

if ( expression ) statement else statement

In this type of if-statement, the first sub-statement will only be executed iff the expression is non-zero; otherwise, the second sub-statement will be executed. Each else matches up with the closest unmatched if , so that the following two snippets of code are not equal:

because in the first, the else statement matches up with the if statement that has secondexpression for a control, but in the second, the braces force the else to match up with the if that has expression for a control.

Switch statements are also a type of selection statement. They have the format

switch ( expression ) statement

The expression here is an integer or a character. The statement here is usually compound and it contains case-labeled statements and optionally a default-labeled statement. The compound statement should not have local variables as the jump to an internal label may skip over the initialization of such variables.

Iteration Statements [ edit | edit source ]

C has three kinds of iteration statements. The first is a while-statement with the form

while ( expression ) statement

The substatement of a while runs repeatedly as long as the control expression evaluates to non-zero at the beginning of each iteration. If the control expression evaluates to zero the first time through, the substatement may not run at all.

The second is a do-while statement of the form

do statement while ( expression ) ;

This is similar to a while loop, except that the controlling expression is evaluated at the end of the loop instead of the beginning and consequently the sub-statement must execute at least once.

The third type of iteration statement is the for-statement. In ANSI C 1989, it has the form

for ( expression opt ; expression opt ; expression opt ) statement

In more recent versions of the C standard, a declaration can substitute for the first expression. The opt subscript indicates that the expression is optional.

The statement

is the rough equivalent of

except for the behavior of continue statements within s .

The e1 expression represents an initial condition; e2 a control expression; and e3 what to happen on each iteration of the loop. If e2 is missing, the expression is considered to be non-zero on every iteration, and only a break statement within s (or a call to a non-returning function such as exit or abort ) will end the loop.

Jump Statements [ edit | edit source ]

C has four types of jump statements. The first, the goto statement, is used sparingly and has the form

goto identifier ;

This statement transfers control flow to the statement labeled with the given identifier. The statement must be within the same function as the goto .

The second, the break statement, with the form

is used within iteration statements and switch statements to pass control flow to the statement following the while, do-while, for, or switch.

The third, the continue statement, with the form

is used within the substatement of iteration statements to transfer control flow to the place just before the end of the substatement. In for statements the iteration expression ( e3 above) will then be executed before the controlling expression ( e2 above) is evaluated.

The fourth type of jump statement is the return statement with the form

return expression opt ;

This statement returns from the function. If the function return type is void , the function may not return a value; otherwise, the expression represents the value to be returned.

how to write a statement in c

C - switch statement

A switch statement allows a variable to be tested for equality against a list of values. Each value is called a case, and the variable being switched on is checked for each switch case .

The syntax for a switch statement in C programming language is as follows −

The following rules apply to a switch statement −

The expression used in a switch statement must have an integral or enumerated type, or be of a class type in which the class has a single conversion function to an integral or enumerated type.

You can have any number of case statements within a switch. Each case is followed by the value to be compared to and a colon.

The constant-expression for a case must be the same data type as the variable in the switch, and it must be a constant or a literal.

When the variable being switched on is equal to a case, the statements following that case will execute until a break statement is reached.

When a break statement is reached, the switch terminates, and the flow of control jumps to the next line following the switch statement.

Not every case needs to contain a break . If no break appears, the flow of control will fall through to subsequent cases until a break is reached.

A switch statement can have an optional default case, which must appear at the end of the switch. The default case can be used for performing a task when none of the cases is true. No break is needed in the default case.

Flow Diagram

switch statement in C

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result −

Write in c language please: write a statement that calls the function IncreaseItemQty with parameters computerInfo and addStock. Assign computerInfo with the returned value. #include typedef struct ProductInfo_struct {    char itemName[50];    int itemQty; } ProductInfo; ProductInfo IncreaseItemQty(ProductInfo productToStock, int increaseValue) {    productToStock.itemQty = productToStock.itemQty + increaseValue;    return productToStock; } int main(void) {    ProductInfo computerInfo;    int addStock;    scanf("%s", computerInfo.itemName);    scanf("%d", &computerInfo.itemQty);    scanf("%d", &addStock);    /* Your code goes here */    printf("Name: %s, stock: %d\n", computerInfo.itemName, computerInfo.itemQty);    return 0; }   thank you in advance

Write in c language please: write a statement that calls the function IncreaseItemQty with parameters computerInfo and addStock. Assign computerInfo with the returned value.

#include <stdio.h>

typedef struct ProductInfo_struct {    char itemName[50];    int itemQty; } ProductInfo;

ProductInfo IncreaseItemQty(ProductInfo productToStock, int increaseValue) {    productToStock.itemQty = productToStock.itemQty + increaseValue;

   return productToStock; }

int main(void) {    ProductInfo computerInfo;    int addStock;

   scanf("%s", computerInfo.itemName);    scanf("%d", &computerInfo.itemQty);    scanf("%d", &addStock);

   /* Your code goes here */

   printf("Name: %s, stock: %d\n", computerInfo.itemName, computerInfo.itemQty);

   return 0; }

thank you in advance

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For statement « Statement « C Tutorial

How can I get my program to print out its statements correctly?

how to write a statement in c

I'm writing a program that asks how many pennies, nickels, dimes, and quarters a user has. The user will then put in how much they have and the program will print how much money they have in total and then a statement right after that. For some reason, my program is not outputting the statement and I don't know why. Can someone help, please?

How many pennies do you have? 3 How many nickels do you have? 2 How many dimes do you have? 1 How many quarters do you have? 2

The dollar value is $0.73 You can barely buy a soda.

Here is my code so far:

' src=

Is the program waiting for you to type another number?

Oh, wow I didn't see that. Thank you!

I know you've resolved you question, but as a few small things I noticed:

You're have the statement using namespace std; at line 2. This incorporates an "unqualified lookup" to the "C++ Standard Library" "namespace". In basic terms, this means you don't have to use std:: in front of all the function calls you're using (e.g. cin => std::cin ; endl => std::endl ) because these calls are grouped by the "namespace" std . At this point in your learning you can think of the using statement as a contraction (i.e. you don't have to type std:: ).

By how your program reads, you could replace all std::cin statements with simply cin . I will note that there is some agreement that the statement using namespace std; is bad practice and that all "C++ Standard Library" should always be prefixed by the std namespace.

The second is the chain of if else statements at the bottom. Consider that, if you checked for total >= 5 first, you wouldn't have to check for total >= 2.00 && total < 5.00 --rather you could simply check total >= 2.00 . Just some small flavor to consider.

Best of luck.

I strongly suggest to keep your money in some large integer, as cents, and convert to dolars ( by dividing by 100) and cents (modulo 100) only for printing. Floating point numbers are unreliable. 0.05 *2 MIGHT NOT be 0.10 but something close

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Using MySQL with SQLAlchemy: Hands-on examples

Using MySQL with SQLAlchemy: Hands-on examples

SQLAlchemy is a popular Python library that gives you many tools to interact with SQL databases. With SQLAlchemy, you can do things like send raw queries to a database, programmatically construct SQL statements, and even map Python classes to database tables with the object-relational mapper (ORM). SQLAlchemy doesn't force you to use any particular features, so it has the flexibility to support many different approaches to working with databases. You can use SQLAlchemy for one-off scripts, web apps, desktop apps, and more. Anywhere that you'd use a SQL database along with Python, you can use SQLAlchemy.

This tutorial will cover setting up an engine object in SQLAlchemy 2.0, which is the first step to using SQLAlchemy. Then it will cover two specific ways of interacting with a database: with raw SQL statements and by using the object-relational mapper.

This tutorial covers the most recent version of SQLAlchemy, which is now 2.0. After running pip install sqlalchemy , you can run pip list to verify your SQLAlchemy version is greater than 2.0.

Set up PlanetScale database #

To demonstrate the examples in this tutorial, you'll need a MySQL-compatible database. If you don't have one already, you can get a free database by signing up for a PlanetScale account .

Once you have an account and are on the dashboard, create a new database by doing the following:

Create a PlanetScale database

PlanetScale uses a branching workflow , similar to git, so you can branch off of your production database when you need to make schema changes. This workflow lets you easily test changes before merging them into your production schema (again, very similar to what we're used to when deploying code changes). For this tutorial, you can just use the default initial branch, main , for development.

Set up the engine object #

The first thing to do when using SQLAlchemy is to set up the engine object. The engine object is used by SQLAlchemy to manage connections to your database. Later, when you go to perform some action on the database, a connection will be requested from the engine and used to send the request.

Before creating the engine, you first need to know the credentials of your database along with the database driver you'll use to connect to the database. For MySQL, connection strings look like this:

Install the database driver

Since SQLAlchemy works with many different database types, you'll need an underlying library, called a database driver, to connect to your database and communicate with it. You don't have to use this driver directly, because as long as SQLAlchemy has the correct driver, it will automatically use it for everything. MySQL Connector is used as the driver in this tutorial, but other good ones are PyMySQL and MySQLdb .

You'll need to install your driver with pip.

So let's say your username, password, hostname, port, and database name are user1 , pscale_pw_abc123 , us-east.connect.psdb.cloud , and 3306 , respectively. Your connection string would look like the following if you were using mysqlconnector as your driver to connect to a database named sqlalchemy.

Create SQLAlchemy engine object

Once you have your driver installed and your connection string ready to go, you can create an engine like this:

Typically, you don't need echo set to True , but it's here so you can see the SQL statements that SQLAlchemy sends to your database.

If you run the code and get no errors, then SQLAlchemy has no trouble connecting to your database. If you get an error like "access denied" or "server not found," then you'll need to fix your connection string before proceeding.

With the engine object working, you can then continue with SQLAlchemy in various ways. This article covers how to use it to send raw queries to your database and how to use it as an ORM.

Raw SQL statements in SQLAlchemy #

Now that we have our engine object working let's use it to send raw SQL statements to the database and receive the results in return.

Create a connection object

To start sending queries over, you'll need to create a connection object. Since the engine manages connections, you need to ask the engine for a connection before you can send statements over to the database.

We need to call engine.connect() to get a connection, and because the connect method is defined with a context manager, we can use a with statement to work with the connection.

Now that you have the connection, you can execute any SQL statement that works on your database by importing the text function from SQLAlchemy. You then pass the query as a string to the text function and then finally pass the text function to connection.execute() .

Create a table

To create a table, you can run the following code:

If you run that and get no errors, that means the table was created. If you try to run the code again, you'll get an error saying the table already exists.

You can also go back to your PlanetScale dashboard to confirm the table was added. Click on your database, click "Console", connect to your branch, and run the following:

PlanetScale console - show tables command

Add data to a table

Next, let's insert some data into our new table.

The first execute statement will create just one row because a single dictionary was passed. But the second statement will create two rows since a list of two dictionaries was passed. Just make sure the keys in the dictionary match the placeholders you have with a colon in front of the name.

Even though we aren't dealing with user input here, it's still a good idea to make a habit of passing in parameters instead of the data directly inside of an insert statement or select statement.

Unlike CREATE statements, INSERT statements happen in transactions, so we have to save them to the database by calling .commit() after we execute our insert statements.

Finally, now that we have some data in the database, let's go ahead and query that data so we can see it again. We can assign the result of connection.execute() to a variable called result, and if we loop over result.mappings() , we'll see that we get dictionaries for each row, where the key in each dictionary represents the column name. This makes it easy for us to retrieve the data and display it in a loop.

As you can see, you only need to know a few things to write raw queries using SQLAlchemy. If you want to use it as an ORM, you can do that as well.

Using SQLAlchemy ORM to write queries #

The idea behind ORM (object-relational mapping) is to create a code representation of your database using classes and objects instead of writing raw SQL statements. The classes represent the tables in your database, and the objects of those classes represent rows. So the first step to using ORM is to define classes that map to your tables. Classes that represent tables in an ORM are called models.

Before we can do the mapping, we need something called the DeclarativeBase from SQLAlchemy. Even though our classes could inherit directly from DeclarativeBase , we will instead create our own Base class that inherits it and then call pass . This makes it easy to add additional settings to our Base class in the future since all of our models will inherit from this one.

Create models

Now we can create our models. Let's first create an Author model which will map to an author table. The idea here is to first define a tablename, which is the attribute __tablename__.

Define the columns

Next, we need to define the columns. Starting in SQLAlchemy 2.0, we can use the Python typing system to define the columns for us. So the format of each column is the name of the column, followed by a class called Mapped with the Python type that closest matches the type you want in the database.

So for an ID column, we would have id: Mapped[int] . Next, that attribute is going to be set equal to the mapped_column function call, where we could set additional properties on our column like primary key, max length, nullable, etc.

So let's create an Author model with two fields: id and name , which means we'll have a table with two columns. SQLAlchemy requires each model to have a primary key so it can internally keep track of each object, so let's make ID the primary key.

Handling relationships and foreign keys

Next, let's create a Post model, which will have a relationship to the Author model. We can create an author_id column inside of Post that holds the reference to the author who created the post. For most database systems, you'd pass ForeignKey to mapped_column to create an actual foreign key restraint in the database. But with PlanetScale, we can't use foreign key constraints . However, we can still use SQLAlchemy to manage the relationship for us.

Since databases with foreign keys are very common, variations for those databases are included in the commented-out lines.

The advantages of having no foreign keys are we can have multiple versions of our database schema in the same way we have multiple versions of code through things like git branches. It also allows us to make schema changes to production databases without any downtime. And finally, it makes it easier to scale the database through sharding.

But even without a foreign key, we can still have a relationship between two tables. To get SQLAlchemy to manage the relationship for us, we can create a relationship attribute. Unlike the attributes for the columns, no column gets created in the database. Instead, the relationship only exists in our code while it's running.

So we can add a relationship attribute and the type will be a list of Author classes, which we can pass to the Mapped class as the type.

Since we're not using ForeignKey , we need to tell SQLAlchemy how to handle our relationship. We can do that we the primaryjoin argument to relationship. If we used a database with foreign keys, then the ForeignKey being passed to the mapped_column would be enough.

We can also create a Tag model in a similar way. This Tag model represents tags that each post could have.

Because one post can have many tags and one tag can belong to many posts, we need to create a many-to-many relationship. We can create a post_tag table to represent this relationship. Many-to-many relationships have the foreign key stored in a separate table called an association table. We can create that table directly in SQLAlchemy. You could also use a model for this, but it's better to use a table because you won't be working with this table directly. Instead, SQLAlchemy will automatically manage the data in this table for you by using the relationships you define.

You can create the table like this:

Create tables with create_all()

Now that we have the Tag table defined, to create the tables in the database, you can call create_all on your Base class. The create_all call takes an engine object, so you can reuse the one we created earlier.

Create_all will take about DeclarativeBase and instruct it to create statements for each one of our tables and add them to the database. You'll see that printed to your terminal when you run.

With our tables created, we can go ahead and insert data into the tables and then query the tables.

Since we're working with the ORM, the way to create new rows is first by creating objects. So for example, to create a new Author , we can instantiate an author object.

For relationships, we can set one object to be related to another when we instantiate the related object. We want to use the relationship attribute instead of the _id field directly because SQLAlchemy will take care of the ID field for us. For many-to-many relationships, we append to the relationship attribute like it's a Python list. We only need to append children of the relationship.

To add them to the database, we need to first add them to the session. Finally, we need to call commit to save them to the database. When you run the script, you'll see the actual insert statements being printed.

Query the data

Now that we have some data in the database, we can go ahead and query that data. First, we write our query statement.

Start by passing your Model call to the select function. Then you have the option to use the where attribute on the resulting object. We can then pass all of that to session.scalar to run the query. With the result of scalar, we can print out the results to the terminal. We can also look at the values in the relationship. For each post, we can look at the tags as well.

If you want to leave out the where and get all of the posts, you will use scalars instead of scalar . Then we can loop over the object returned and print out all the titles.

Conclusion #

With your new knowledge of SQLAlchemy, you should have a good starting point to continue using it in any Python project that uses a SQL database. As long as you can set up the engine object, you'll be able to decide whether you want to simply send raw SQL statements, construct SQL statements using the SQLAlchemy API, or map your Python classes and objects to your database tables and data.

Want a performant MySQL database that branches, scales, and reverts?

Improvements to database branch pages

Your business deserves a predictable database.

Never worry about another 3am wake-up call saying the site is down.  Give your engineers the power they deserve with a PlanetScale database today.

Performers seen on a stage with fists raised.

Junos 2023 reminds us how Canadian content regulations and funding supports music across the country

how to write a statement in c

Associate Professor Popular Music and Media Studies, University of Alberta

how to write a statement in c

Assistant Professor, Media and Popular Culture, Department of Communications, University of California, San Diego

how to write a statement in c

Scholarly Communications & Copyright Librarian, University of Winnipeg

Disclosure statement

Brian Fauteux has received past funding from SSHRC.

Andrew deWaard has received past funding from SSHRC.

Brianne Selman has received past funding from SSHRC.

University of Alberta and University of Winnipeg provide funding as founding partners of The Conversation CA.

University of Alberta and University of Winnipeg provide funding as members of The Conversation CA-FR.

University of California, San Diego provides funding as a member of The Conversation US.

View all partners

As we celebrate another year of Canadian music at the Juno Awards , let’s consider the broader music ecosystem that facilitates a vibrant component of our multifaceted culture and identity.

An essential component of this ecosystem supporting musical artists has been the policy of Canadian Content (CanCon) regulations for music radio.

CanCon policy hasn’t only ensured Canadian music is played on the radio, but notably, that radio profits are redistributed to artists through grant programs — something critical for artists’ viability and success .

Revitalization in digital era

Currently, there is debate on how to implement similar regulations for streaming media. Bill-C11, An Act to amend the Broadcasting Act and to make related and consequential amendments to other Acts has been passed by the Senate (with contentious amendments), and is now being debated in the House .

The few large multinational corporations that make use of Canada’s creative sector should also contribute to the public funding of the arts, contributing to the revitalization of music in Canada in the digital era.

A woman seen singing.

Music industry highly consolidated

On one hand, the music industry in Canada is highly consolidated, with three record labels (Universal, Warner, Sony), three streaming companies (Spotify, Apple Music, Amazon Music), and one live concert and ticketing company (LiveNation/Ticketmaster).

They are all non-Canadian. They have market power that shapes the industry to favour superstars, lessens the ability of working musicians to make a living wage and limits the diversity of Canadian music.

On the other hand, public programs support diverse Canadian music heritage and the development of Canadian artists. This year’s Juno nominees include at least 85 artists who have received a total of 433 grants from FACTOR (The Foundation Assisting Canadian Talent on Recordings).

Read more: Junos 50th anniversary: How we remember these award-winning hit singles

FACTOR, along with public and community radio, the Polaris Prize, provincial music industry associations and other public-serving organizations and regulations help ensure the diversity and abundance of music outside of the purely profit-driven system.

Bill C-11 has potential to address the limitations of the corporate music model and provide musicians with more opportunities to earn a livelihood by increasing opportunities for grants. But these concerns have been overshadowed by the sprawling nature of the bill and its legislative amendment process.

Bill C-11 proposes an update to the Broadcasting Act to include online platforms in CRTC regulation and CanCon rules.

In terms of streaming music (like on Spotify or Apple Music), this would mean including music by Canadian artists on the curated playlists provided by the platform, and companies paying in to a media fund that would provide grants for Canadian artists.

Algorithms are not neutral : they train us as much as we train them. Using them to promote local music or Canadian music may inspire a wider variety of music heard on streaming services.

A performer seen on stage.

Regulations done properly

Some critics say C-11 would cause financial hardship and unintended consequences for content creators and open the door for CRTC interference in freedom of expression and lead to government control over social feed algorithms.

Many remain unconvinced that the centralization of regulation is worth the overreach of the bill.

Researchers in public policy and communications have amplified some creators’ concerns that given the role of broadcasting as a settler nation-building project entrenched in systemic racism, new policy would need to do more to safeguard interests of Black, Indigenous and racialized content creators .

Major Senate change

A major Senate amendment proposed limiting the bill to maintain the autonomy of individual creators posting online, and curbing the CRTC’s discretionary power .

But Pablo Rodriguez, Minister of Canadian Heritage, has rejected Senate amendments and the process is yet again under fire.

The non-profit Open Media dedicated to “ keeping the internet open, affordable and surveillance-free ,” notes a key Senate amendment “considerably reduces the risk of ordinary Canadian user-uploaded content being regulated as broadcasting content ” but flags problems with how age restrictions on content would be managed.

It’s good to have critics ensure regulations benefit all artists and users and that the bill does not tell people what to create . Yet much of the writing on C-11 has dismissed CanCon regulations for the streaming era altogether.

Read more: Should we be forced to see more Canadian content on TikTok and YouTube?

Why CanCon matters

In radio, CanCon refers to regulations that began in 1971. By playing more music by Canadians on the radio (initially 30 per cent Canadian music over the broadcast week, now at least 35 per cent ), the aim was to grow domestic music industries.

In the same era, major labels invested in Canadian record pressing plants to help overcome the costs of importing records.

By the end of the 1970s, evidence of music industry growth in Canada was apparent, with more recording taking place in studios and an increase in performance royalties being paid to songwriters .

Music grants for artists

Two avenues of support for artists in Canada are campus/community radio and grants, often from FACTOR.

Our research found artists overwhelmingly emphasize the importance of grants to their careers. While some note barriers to access with writing and receiving some grants, grant funding remains crucial.

Both the Community Radio Fund of Canada and FACTOR receive money from Canadian Content Development (CCD) contributions . These come from commercial radio stations with annual revenue above $1,250,000. English-language stations that meet this criteria pay $1,000 plus half a per cent on all revenues above $1,250,000.

To support music in Canada, corporate music streaming services should pay into CCD funds.

People seen by a table with tshirts.

Lower charting success

Our research has documented a decline in the number and variety of charting artists and songs today in Canada which coincides with lower charting success of Canadian artists. This can be correlated to a lack of CanCon regulations in streaming, versus in the 90s when CanCon regulations affected how Canadians listen to music.

In satellite radio, CanCon regulations mean a certain per centage of channels must be Canadian . While these regulations aren’t perfect (Canadian channels are grouped together far down the channel lineup), artists have benefitted from royalties.

This was made evident in the uproar surrounding the cancellation of CBC Radio 3 on SiriusXM, a channel that was a stable source of income for artists and labels.

Beyond reforms to C-11, we argue guidelines governing corporate mergers should centre the concerns of workers and consumers, benefiting many sectors in Canada, including music.

Both government actions would help address the most immediate danger facing Canadian music today: media consolidation.

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How To Write A Resignation Letter

If you have decided to leave your current job, the next step is to write a resignation letter. Writing a resignation letter may seem like a daunting task, but it is an important part of the process of leaving your job on a positive note. A resignation letter is a formal document that informs your employer of your decision to leave the company. In this blog post, we will provide you with a step-by-step guide on how to write a resignation letter.

Step 1: Plan Ahead

Before you start writing your resignation letter, it is important to plan ahead. Take some time to think about your decision to leave and the reasons why you are resigning. This will help you to compose a clear and concise letter. You should also consider the timing of your resignation and ensure that you are giving your employer enough notice.

Step 2: Address the Letter

Your resignation letter should be addressed to your immediate supervisor or manager. It is important to use the proper salutation and address the person by their name. If you are unsure of the person’s name, you can address the letter to “Dear [Job Title]” or “To Whom It May Concern.”

Step 3: Begin with a Formal Statement

Your resignation letter should begin with a formal statement that clearly states your intention to resign. For example, “I am writing to inform you that I have decided to resign from my position as [Job Title] at [Company Name].”

Step 4: Provide Your Reason for Resigning

In the next paragraph, you should provide your reason for resigning. This is an optional step, but it is a good opportunity to provide feedback to your employer. You can explain that you are leaving to pursue a new opportunity, to focus on personal goals, or because of personal circumstances. You should be honest but professional in your explanation.

Step 5: Express Gratitude

Express your gratitude for the opportunities you have had at the company. This is a chance to acknowledge the support and guidance you have received from your colleagues and superiors. You can also mention the skills and experience you have gained during your time at the company.

Step 6: Offer to Help with the Transition

In the final paragraph of your resignation letter, you should offer to help with the transition. This can include training a replacement or assisting with the handover of your duties. This shows that you are committed to ensuring a smooth transition and leaving on a positive note.

Step 7: Close the Letter

Close the letter with a formal closing, such as “Sincerely” or “Best Regards,” followed by your name and signature. If you are sending the letter via email, you can include your contact information in your signature.

Sample Resignation Letter

Dear [Manager’s Name],

I am writing to inform you that I have decided to resign from my position as [Job Title] at [Company Name]. My last day of work will be [Date].

I have accepted an offer from another company that will allow me to pursue my long-term career goals. I have enjoyed my time at [Company Name] and appreciate the opportunities I have had to develop my skills and experience.

I want to express my gratitude for the support and guidance provided by my colleagues and superiors during my time at the company. I have learned a great deal from working here and will always value the experience.

I am committed to ensuring a smooth transition and am willing to assist with the handover of my duties. Please let me know how I can best help during this time.

Thank you for your understanding and support during this transition. Please let me know if there is anything else I can do to assist.

Writing a resignation letter can be challenging, but it is an important part of the process of leaving your current job on a positive note. It is important to remember that your resignation letter will become a part of your employment record. Therefore, it is essential to approach the task with a positive attitude and ensure that the letter reflects your appreciation for the opportunities you have had at the company.

In addition, it is important to consider the timing of your resignation. In general, it is recommended that you give your employer at least two weeks’ notice. This allows your employer to make arrangements for your replacement and ensure a smooth transition.

Finally, it is important to be prepared for the possibility that your employer may ask you to stay or counteroffer with a better package. If this happens, it is important to evaluate your options carefully and consider the long-term implications of your decision.

In conclusion, writing a resignation letter is an important step in the process of leaving your current job. By following the steps outlined in this blog post, you can ensure that your resignation letter is professional, respectful, and reflective of your appreciation for the opportunities you have had at the company. Good luck with your new endeavors!

Contact us if you are looking for a customized approach to your career needs.  

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    In this article, you will learn about how to write a C program with our step by step guidelines. Learn about programming practice, process and standards. ... Proper way for construction of statements. While writing code, your statement should be simple and direct with proper indentation. Try to use one statement per line.

  4. Loops in C: For, While, Do While looping Statements [Examples]

    1. While Loop. In while loop, a condition is evaluated before processing a body of the loop. If a condition is true then and only then the body of a loop is executed. 2. Do-While Loop. In a do…while loop, the condition is always executed after the body of a loop. It is also called an exit-controlled loop. 3.

  5. Conditional or Ternary Operator (?:) in C/C++

    The conditional operator is kind of similar to the if-else statement as it does follow the same algorithm as of if-else statement but the conditional operator takes less space and helps to write the if-else statements in the shortest way possible. Syntax: The conditional operator is of the form variable = Expression1 ? Expression2 : Expression3

  6. syntax

    The nice thing about the ternary operator is that it's an expression, whereas the above are statements, and you can nest expressions but not statements. So you can do things like ret = (expr ? a : b) > 0; As an extra tidbit, Python >=2.6 has a slightly different syntax for an equivalent operation: a if expr else b.

  7. C++ If ... Else

    The if Statement Use the if statement to specify a block of C++ code to be executed if a condition is true. Syntax if (condition) { // block of code to be executed if the condition is true } Note that if is in lowercase letters. Uppercase letters (If or IF) will generate an error.

  8. Logical OR (||) operator with example in C language

    Example 1: Take a number and apply some of the conditions and print the result of expression containing logical OR operator. #include <stdio.h> int main() { int num =10; printf("%d\n",( num ==10 || num >=5)); printf("%d\n",( num >=5 || num <=50)); printf("%d\n",( num!=10 || num >=5)); printf("%d\n",( num >=20 || num!=10)); return 0; } Output

  9. How to Use C++ to Write Cin and Cout Statements: 11 Steps

    Write the cin statement. First declare a variable. Then write a cin statement to define a value for the variable as shown. When the program runs, the input that user enters will be assigned to the variable. Note that the cin statement does not output any text onto the monitor. 3 Combine cin and cout statements.

  10. C/Statements

    Most statements in a typical C program are simple statements of this form. Other examples of simple statements are the jump statements return, break, continue, and goto.A return statement specifies the return value for a function (if there is one), and when executed it causes the function to exit immediately. The break and continue statements jump immediately to the end of a loop (or switch ...

  11. C Programming/Statements

    C has four types of jump statements. The first, the goto statement, is used sparingly and has the form. goto identifier ; This statement transfers control flow to the statement labeled with the given identifier. The statement must be within the same function as the goto . The second, the break statement, with the form.

  12. Basic Input and Output in C

    The basic type in C includes types like int, float, char, etc. Inorder to input or output the specific type, the X in the above syntax is changed with the specific format specifier of that type. The Syntax for input and output for these are: Integer: Input: scanf ("%d", &intVariable); Output: printf ("%d", intVariable);

  13. Solved Write a single statement of \( C \) code to declare

    Computer Science questions and answers. Write a single statement of \ ( C \) code to declare an array called foo of type int that has size 10 (i.e., it has 10 entries in the array), and initialize those 10 entries to be the first 10 perfect squares (i.e., 1, 4, 9, etc.). Write the C code to declare an array called foo of type pointer-to-char ...

  14. C

    The syntax of an 'if' statement in C programming language is − if (boolean_expression) { /* statement (s) will execute if the boolean expression is true */ } If the Boolean expression evaluates to true, then the block of code inside the 'if' statement will be executed.

  15. Operators

    The assignment operator assigns a value to a variable. 1 x = 5; This statement assigns the integer value 5 to the variable x. The assignment operation always takes place from right to left, and never the other way around: 1 x = y; This statement assigns to variable x the value contained in variable y.

  16. C

    The syntax for a switch statement in C programming language is as follows − switch(expression) { case constant-expression : statement(s); break; /* optional */ case constant-expression : statement(s); break; /* optional */ /* you can have any number of case statements */ default : /* Optional */ statement(s); }

  17. Answered: Write in c language please: write a…

    In C++, please write a program according to the instructions and all the criteria. Thank you. Instruction Write and test a function that returns a copy of its string parameter with no repeated characters. The functions ignore case when they compare letters. The functions return strings whose letters are upper case.

  18. For statement « Statement « C Tutorial

    For statement « Statement « C Tutorial. C Tutorial; Statement; For statement; 6.6.For statement: 6.6.1. for LOOP: 6.6.2. Omit all three parts in for loop: 6.6.3. The for loop with a comma operator: 6.6.4. Initialize loop control variable outside the for statement: 6.6.5. Use for loop to print a rectangle: 6.6.6. Sum integers in for statement:

  19. How can I get my program to print out its statements correctly?

    You're have the statement using namespace std; at line 2. This incorporates an "unqualified lookup" to the "C++ Standard Library" "namespace". In basic terms, this means you don't have to use std:: in front of all the function calls you're using (e.g. cin => std::cin; endl => std::endl) because these calls are grouped by the "namespace" std.

  20. Using MySQL with SQLAlchemy: Hands-on examples

    Click the "Create" link at the bottom of the dashboard. Give your database a name. Select a region. Click the "Create database" button. Finally, you can click on the "Connect" button and select "General" in the dropdown to see your database credentials. You'll need these credentials to create an engine in SQLAlchemy.

  21. Write capability statement for cleaning company

    Write capability statement for cleaning company Search more . Other Content Writing jobs. Posted Only freelancers located in the U.S. may apply. U.S. located freelancers only Someone keeps asking me for a capability statement, and I need help with writing one for my cleaning business. Less than 30 hrs/week ...

  22. Junos 2023 reminds us how Canadian content regulations and funding

    English-language stations that meet this criteria pay $1,000 plus half a per cent on all revenues above $1,250,000. To support music in Canada, corporate music streaming services should pay into ...

  23. How To Write A Resignation Letter

    Step 2: Address the Letter. Your resignation letter should be addressed to your immediate supervisor or manager. It is important to use the proper salutation and address the person by their name. If you are unsure of the person's name, you can address the letter to "Dear [Job Title]" or "To Whom It May Concern.".